Timeline of the history of Islam (10th century)

The 10th century CE represents a period of both political fragmentation and cultural and intellectual flourishing within the Islamic world. While the Abbasid Caliphate continued to nominally reign from Baghdad, its authority significantly diminished, giving rise to independent dynasties and regional powers. This century witnessed the rise of new centers of Islamic civilization and the consolidation of diverse theological and legal schools.

Political and Military Events:

• Early Century: The Abbasid Caliphate under al-Muqtadir (r. 908-932) faced internal rebellions and external threats. The Qarmatians, an Isma'ili Shia sect, posed a serious challenge, raiding as far as Mecca.
• Rise of the Fatimids: The Fatimid Caliphate, an Isma'ili Shia dynasty, continued its expansion in North Africa. They consolidated their control over Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia and parts of Algeria) and began looking towards Egypt.
• Hamdanids in Syria and Northern Iraq: The Hamdanid dynasty, of Arab origin, established autonomous rule in northern Syria and Upper Mesopotamia (Northern Iraq). Figures like Sayf al-Dawla (d. 967) patronized arts and sciences in Aleppo, making it a vibrant cultural center.
• Buyids in Persia and Iraq: The Buyids, a Shia dynasty of Iranian origin, gradually gained control over the Abbasid Caliphate. By 945, they had effectively become the power behind the Abbasid throne, relegating the Caliph to a symbolic role.
• Samanids in Central Asia and Persia: The Samanid dynasty, of Persian origin, ruled over Transoxiana and Khurasan (parts of modern Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, and Iran). They promoted Persian language and culture and fostered a golden age of Persian literature.
• Decline of the Abbasids: The Abbasid Caliphate experienced further decline in the latter half of the century. Internal struggles for power, economic difficulties, and the increasing influence of the Buyids weakened their authority considerably.
• Ikhshidids in Egypt and Syria: The Ikhshidid dynasty, of Turkish origin, ruled Egypt and parts of Syria until the Fatimid conquest. They maintained relative stability and prosperity in the region.
• Fatimid Conquest of Egypt: In 969, the Fatimids, under the leadership of Jawhar al-Siqilli, conquered Egypt and established Cairo as their new capital. They commissioned the construction of al-Azhar Mosque, which later became a renowned center of Islamic learning.
• Cordoba Caliphate in Spain: In al-Andalus (Islamic Spain), the Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba, under Abd-ar-Rahman III (r. 912-961) and his successors, reached its zenith. Cordoba became a major European center of culture and learning.

Cultural and Intellectual Developments:

• Flourishing of Islamic Scholarship: The 10th century saw significant contributions in various fields, including theology, law, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and astronomy.
• Development of Islamic Law (Fiqh): The major schools of Islamic law (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali) continued to develop and consolidate their doctrines.
• Emergence of Sufism: Sufism, the mystical dimension of Islam, gained increasing prominence. Early Sufi masters began to articulate their doctrines and practices, laying the foundation for later Sufi orders.
• Persian Literary Renaissance: Under the Samanids, Persian language and literature experienced a revival. Prominent poets like Rudaki emerged, contributing to the development of Persian as a literary language.
• Development of Islamic Philosophy: Islamic philosophers, such as al-Farabi, made significant contributions to logic, metaphysics, and political philosophy. They sought to integrate Greek philosophy with Islamic theology.
• Advancements in Medicine and Science: Islamic scholars continued to advance knowledge in medicine, mathematics, and astronomy, building upon the legacy of Greek and Persian scholars.
• Architecture and Art: Islamic architecture and art flourished in various regions, reflecting the diverse cultural influences and artistic styles of the time. The Great Mosque of Cordoba, for example, underwent significant expansion and embellishment.