History of Spain (1808–1874)
The History of Spain from 1808 to 1874 is a tumultuous period marked by political instability, warfare, and profound social and economic changes. It begins with the Napoleonic invasion and ends with the First Republic, encompassing the decline of the Spanish Empire and the rise of liberal and conservative factions vying for control of the nation.
The Peninsular War (1808-1814): Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808 and the installation of his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, as king triggered a widespread uprising. This "War of Spanish Independence," or Peninsular War, pitted Spanish patriots, aided by British and Portuguese forces under the Duke of Wellington, against the French. The war was characterized by brutal guerrilla warfare and widespread devastation. The Cortes of Cádiz, a parliament representing the Spanish nation (excluding those under French control), drafted the liberal Constitution of 1812, a landmark document that enshrined principles of national sovereignty, separation of powers, and individual rights.
The Reign of Ferdinand VII (1814-1833): Following Napoleon's defeat, Ferdinand VII returned to Spain and promptly repudiated the Constitution of 1812, restoring absolutist rule. This sparked a period of repression against liberals and a resurgence of traditional institutions. However, Ferdinand's attempts to reimpose Spanish authority in the Americas were largely unsuccessful, leading to the independence of most of Spain's colonies. The later years of his reign were dominated by the "Ominous Decade" (1823-1833), a period of severe repression enforced by French troops sent by the Holy Alliance. The succession crisis following Ferdinand's death, complicated by the Salic Law (preventing female succession), triggered the First Carlist War.
The Carlist Wars (1833-1876): The First Carlist War (1833-1840) erupted between supporters of Ferdinand VII's daughter, Isabella II (and her regent mother, Maria Christina), who favored a more liberal regime, and supporters of Ferdinand's brother, Carlos, who advocated for absolute monarchy and traditional privileges. The conflict highlighted deep divisions within Spanish society and further weakened the country. The subsequent reign of Isabella II was marked by political instability, with numerous changes in government and frequent military pronunciamientos (coups).
The Reign of Isabella II (1833-1868): Isabella II's reign was characterized by a series of alternating liberal and conservative governments, often installed through military intervention. The political landscape was dominated by moderate liberals (moderados) and progressive liberals (progresistas), with smaller factions such as the democrats and republicans also emerging. Economic development remained uneven, with a slow industrialization process and persistent social inequalities. Corruption and scandals plagued the court, further eroding public trust in the monarchy.
The Sexenio Democrático (1868-1874): A revolution in 1868, known as "La Gloriosa" (The Glorious Revolution), overthrew Isabella II and ushered in a period of democratic experimentation. A provisional government was established, and a new constitution was drafted in 1869, establishing a constitutional monarchy. Amadeo of Savoy, an Italian prince, was chosen as king in 1870. However, Amadeo faced immense challenges, including Carlist uprisings, republican agitation, and political infighting. He abdicated in 1873, leading to the proclamation of the First Spanish Republic.
The First Spanish Republic (1873-1874): The First Republic was a brief and tumultuous period marked by extreme political instability, cantonalist revolts (local uprisings advocating for autonomous cantons), and a renewed Carlist War. The republic was plagued by internal divisions and a lack of consensus on the form of government. Four presidents held office in less than a year. A military coup led by General Arsenio Martínez Campos in December 1874 restored the monarchy, paving the way for the reign of Alfonso XII, Isabella II's son, and the Bourbon Restoration.