Połowce

Połowce (also known as Cumans, Kipchaks, or Polovtsy) were a Turkic nomadic people who dominated the Pontic-Caspian steppe from approximately the 11th century to the 13th century. They formed a powerful tribal confederation composed of numerous groups of Turkic origin, and were known for their military prowess and nomadic lifestyle centered on animal husbandry and raiding.

Their territory extended from the Danube River in the west to beyond the Volga River in the east, influencing the political landscape of the region. They frequently clashed with, and allied with, various neighboring powers, including the Byzantine Empire, the Kievan Rus', Hungary, Poland, and the various Turkic groups to their east.

The Primary Chronicle and other historical sources document their interactions with the Rus' princes, characterized by both conflict and alliance. Often employed as mercenaries, they played a significant role in the internecine warfare of the Rus'. Their raids and military activities significantly impacted the southern Rus' territories, contributing to the decline of the Kievan Rus'.

The Cuman language belonged to the Kipchak branch of the Turkic language family. Our knowledge of their language is primarily derived from the Codex Cumanicus, a medieval dictionary compiled by Franciscan missionaries.

The Cuman-Kipchak confederation was weakened by internal divisions and external pressures, most notably the Mongol invasion of the 13th century. Many Cumans fled westward, seeking refuge in the Kingdom of Hungary, where they were granted asylum and integrated into the Hungarian population, significantly contributing to the ethnic and cultural mix of the country. Others were absorbed into the Golden Horde, the Mongol successor state that controlled much of their former territory. The Kipchak influence persisted in the region under the Golden Horde and subsequent successor states. The term "Kipchak" is sometimes used interchangeably with "Cuman" or "Polovtsy," although modern scholarship often differentiates between the broader Kipchak linguistic and cultural group and the specific Cuman tribal confederation.