Women in policing in the United States refers to the historical and contemporary participation of women as sworn law enforcement officers within local, state, and federal police agencies in the United States. Women began working as police officers in the United States as early as the 1890s, and by 2018 they made up approximately 12.6% of all U.S. sworn police officers.
Historical Background
Early Entry into the Profession
Women entered the criminal justice professions in the early 1800s, employed primarily as prison matrons whose responsibilities centered on the well-being of women and children in jails. During the late 1880s and early 1900s, many women became involved in social and moral reform movements, which facilitated their visibility in the sphere of policing and public vigilance. These movements concerned themselves with eliminating gambling, prostitution, public obscenity, alcoholism, and other behaviors considered vices.
Marie Owens is believed to be the first professional policewoman in the United States, joining the Chicago Police Department in 1891. Other early police officers include Alice Stebbins Wells, commissioned as an officer in 1910 in Los Angeles, and Lola Baldwin, who began work for the Portland Police Department on women's and children's issues in 1908. Fanny Bixby was sworn into office in 1908 by the city of Long Beach, California. Mary D. Diehl and L. M. Gillespie became two of the first women sworn in by the city of Philadelphia in 1913.
The first African American policewomen to join the force include Cora Parchment, who was sworn into the New York Police Department, and Georgia Ann Robinson, who was sworn into the Los Angeles Police Department in 1919.
The work of these early policewomen often involved desk work, supervision, and counseling of criminals, geared mostly toward vulnerable groups considered to be part of the purview of women's policing: prostitutes, runaways, and wayward children, among others. The 1915 creation of the International Association of Policewomen worked to advocate for more opportunities for women in policing.
From the 1930s until the early 1960s, women's roles in policing were largely limited to working as dispatchers, checking parking meters, and continuing to deal with women's and children's issues. They also took on more clerical and support duties and were less involved in the active investigation of crime.
1960–1980: Tides of Change
Women began to take more official, standardized, and widespread roles in law enforcement at all levels during the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, at the confluence of the second-wave feminist movement, national equal opportunity legislation, and changing economic structures.
The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, specifically Title VII, made it more difficult for employers to discriminate against women in hiring and employment, a trend that extended to the police force. The Johnson Administration passed the 1968 Omnibus Crime Control Act and the Safe Streets Act of 1968, which created the Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA). A 1973 edition of the Crime Control Act mandated that any educational institution receiving LEAA funds could not discriminate on the basis of gender, race, or other protected categories.
The 1971 Supreme Court decision Griggs v. Duke Power Company mandated that job descriptions include only essential expectations, drawing upon a "disparate impact" model. This opened the door for lawsuits against police departments that had height, weight, and other physical requirements, which were framed as discriminatory against women.
1980 Onward: The "Brass Ceiling" and Role Definition
According to FBI Uniform Crime Reports data, women made up 5.0% of the police force in 1980. This figure grew to 9.8% in 1995, 11.2% in 2005, and 11.9% in 2014. The percentage has remained relatively stagnant in recent years.
Women hold, as of 2010, approximately 7.3% of upper-level and supervisory roles within police departments. The term "brass ceiling" has been used to describe the limited opportunities for advancement for women in the police force and military.
In 2021, Pamela A. Smith became the first Black woman to be appointed as chief of the United States Park Police. In 2023, she became the first to serve as chief of the Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia.
Representation
Women are better represented in larger police departments than smaller ones. In 2008, women made up approximately 15% of officers in large local police departments, 13% in large sheriffs' offices, 8% in medium-sized local police departments, 8% in medium-sized sheriffs' offices, 6% in small local police departments, and 4% in small sheriffs' offices.
Large city departments have some of the highest percentages of female officers, including the New York Police Department (18% of uniformed officers in 2017), the Los Angeles Police Department (18% in 2018), and the Chicago Police Department (24% in 2010).
Women are also underrepresented in federal law enforcement agencies. In 2008, the percentage of women in federal agencies included: Office of Inspector General (25%), United States Postal Inspection Service (22%), Federal Bureau of Investigation (19%), United States Capitol Police (19%), United States Forest Service (15.9%), Federal Bureau of Prisons (14%), Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (13%), and Drug Enforcement Administration (10%).
In a 2012 survey of the 41 largest agencies, women made up 14.6% of the total number of officers but only 0.47% of SWAT team members.
Challenges and Perspectives
Women in policing face particular challenges, including lack of representation, stereotypes, and issues related to intersectionality. Academic studies have discussed discrimination in hiring and management practices. Recruiting processes that favor candidates with high upper body strength and military experience have been identified as barriers. Between 2005 and 2011, pass rates on physical tests were 80% lower among female candidates than male candidates.
Research indicates that women tend to use less force than men and are more responsive to victims, especially in cases of domestic dispute. Studies have shown that women are less likely to be subject to negative reports and complaints from citizens. Women also report higher job satisfaction than men in policing.
Organizations such as the National Association of Women Law Enforcement Executives (NAWLEE), involved since 1995, offer mentoring services to guide women into executive positions and help new female officers reach leadership roles.
Popular Perceptions
The media has played an important role in shaping perceptions and representations of female police officers. Television shows such as Law & Order, Rizzoli & Isles, The Closer, and Law & Order: Special Victims Unit have portrayed female police officers in multifaceted lights. Historically, female detectives in popular television were often highly sexualized, particularly in the late 1960s and 1970s in shows such as The Bionic Woman, Charlie's Angels, and Police Woman.
Studies have found that women and minority police officers are "over-represented" on prime-time television shows compared to their actual rates of representation in the police force. This diversity of representation is less evident in feature films, particularly police action films, where women are often represented as rookies or undercover detective cops rather than in violent, physical action roles.
