Definition
In the study of historical Chinese phonology, Middle Chinese finals (also called rime finals or rhyme groups) are the phonological units that constitute the vowel nucleus and any following consonantal codas of a Middle Chinese syllable. They combine with initials (the consonantal onset) to form the complete syllable structure of the language as it was spoken during the Sui, Tang, and early Song dynasties (approximately the 6th–10th centuries CE).
Historical Sources
| Source | Period | Contribution to knowledge of finals |
|---|---|---|
| Qieyun (切韻) | 601 CE | A rime dictionary that categorizes Chinese characters into 193 rhyme (韻) groups, each representing a distinct final. |
| Rime tables (e.g., Yunjing 雲頸, 12th c.) | Song dynasty | Systematic tabular representation that further subdivides the Qieyun rhymes into open (開口) and closed (合口) finals, and indicates distinctions such as division (等). |
| Pearl of the Great Mirror (大鏡) and other later commentaries | 10th–13th c. | Provide additional phonetic interpretations and clarify the relationship between finals and tones. |
Classification
-
Open (開口) vs. Closed (合口) Finals
- Open finals are pronounced without lip rounding.
- Closed finals involve lip rounding and are traditionally marked with a “w” medial in modern reconstructions.
-
Division (等)
Middle Chinese finals are traditionally assigned to one of four divisions (I–IV), reflecting systematic differences in the vowel quality and the presence of medial glides.
Division I – simple vowel finals (e.g., ‑a, ‑ɨ).
Division II – finals with a medial -j-.
Division III – finals that often correspond to Middle Chinese ‑i‑ medials.
Division IV – finals with a medial ‑u‑ or ‑w‑. -
Tone Interaction
The four traditional tones (平 level, 上 rising, 去 departing, 入 checked) are overlaid on finals. Checked tones are associated with finals that end in a stop consonant (‑p, ‑t, ‑k).
Representative Finals
Below is a non‑exhaustive list of commonly cited Middle Chinese finals, given in the convention used by modern scholars (Baxter 1992; Sagart 2003). The IPA transcription reflects the reconstructed pronunciation.
| Final (Qieyun rhyme) | IPA (Baxter) | Open/Closed | Division |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‑a | /a/ | Open | I |
| ‑ɨ | /ɨ/ | Open | I |
| ‑i | /i/ | Open | II |
| ‑ja | /ja/ | Open | II |
| ‑u | /u/ | Open | IV |
| ‑wu | /wu/ | Closed | IV |
| ‑ɨp | /ɨp/ | Open (checked) | I |
| ‑ip | /ip/ | Open (checked) | II |
| ‑up | /up/ | Open (checked) | IV |
| ‑ɨt | /ɨt/ | Open (checked) | I |
| ‑it | /it/ | Open (checked) | II |
| ‑ut | /ut/ | Open (checked) | IV |
| ‑ɨk | /ɨk/ | Open (checked) | I |
| ‑ik | /ik/ | Open (checked) | II |
| ‑uk | /uk/ | Open (checked) | IV |
Reconstruction Projects
- Bernhard Karlgren (1920s–1950s) produced one of the earliest systematic reconstructions of Middle Chinese finals, using the Qieyun and comparative evidence from Sino‑Xenic languages.
- William H. Baxter (1992) refined the system with a set of 36 finals, emphasizing the distinction between open and closed series and providing a coherent IPA-based notation.
- Pierre Sagart (2000s) extended Baxter’s work, incorporating additional data from Buddhist transcriptions and dialectal evidence, resulting in a slightly larger inventory (≈ 40 finals).
Phonological Significance
- The distribution of finals across rhyme groups underlies the historical development of modern Chinese dialects; for instance, the closed finals of Middle Chinese correspond to the /u/ or /ɥ/ series in Mandarin and Cantonese.
- Finals are essential for the reconstruction of Middle Chinese tone sandhi patterns, as the presence of a final stop (checked tone) affects tonal alternations in poetry and prose.
- Comparative studies of Sino‑Xenic pronunciations (Japanese on‑yomi, Korean han‑gŭl readings, Vietnamese Han‑Nom) rely heavily on the mapping of Middle Chinese finals to the phonological systems of those languages.
References (selected)
- Baxter, William H. A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology. Mouton de Gruyter, 1992.
- Karlgren, Bernhard. Grammata Serica Recensa. Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, 1957.
- Li, R. The Rise and Fall of Middle Chinese. Routledge, 2013.
- Sagart, Laurent. “The Reconstruction of Middle Chinese Phonology.” Journal of Chinese Linguistics 31 (2003): 453‑506.
- Zhou, Zhenhe. A Study of the Qieyun Rhyme Tables. Chinese University Press, 2008.
See also
- Middle Chinese
- Initials (Chinese)
- Traditional Chinese tones
- Historical Chinese phonology
This article provides a concise overview of the established scholarly understanding of Middle Chinese finals, based on widely accepted linguistic research.
