In Verrem (Latin: "Against Verres") is a series of speeches delivered by the Roman orator and statesman Marcus Tullius Cicero in 70 BC, during the corruption and extortion trial of Gaius Verres, the former governor of Sicily. The work is a landmark in Roman legal oratory and played a pivotal role in Cicero's early political career.
Background
Gaius Verres served as governor of Sicily from 73 to 71 BC, during which time he was alleged to have engaged in widespread extortion, theft of art and religious artifacts, judicial corruption, and cruel treatment of both Roman citizens and Sicilian allies. Following his return to Rome, the Sicilian communities petitioned Cicero to prosecute Verres under the lex Cornelia de repetundis (the extortion law).
The trial took place before the praetor Manius Acilius Glabrio. Verres was defended by Quintus Hortensius Hortalus, the foremost orator of the day, who had been elected consul for 69 BC and sought to delay the proceedings until the new year, when a more favorable court would be in place.
Structure and Content of the Speeches
The In Verrem corpus is divided into two parts:
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Actio Prima (First Hearing): Delivered in August 70 BC. Cicero, aware of the defense's strategy to delay the trial, abandoned the traditional format of a lengthy opening speech. Instead, he presented his evidence and witnesses immediately, overwhelming Verres with the sheer volume of testimony. The Actio Prima is a single, relatively brief speech that outlines the case and Cicero's procedural strategy.
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Actio Secunda (Second Hearing): This was never delivered in court because Verres, realizing the strength of the case against him, went into voluntary exile in Massilia (modern-day Marseille) before the second hearing could take place. Cicero nevertheless published the Actio Secunda as a literary work, comprising five books (or libri):
- Liber I: De Praetura Urbana — On Verres' misconduct as urban praetor in Rome.
- Liber II: De Praetura Siciliensi — On Verres' abuses of judicial power in Sicily.
- Liber III: De Frumento — On Verres' extortion in the grain tithe system.
- Liber IV: De Signis — On Verres' theft of art, statues, and sacred objects.
- Liber V: De Suppliciis — On Verres' illegal executions, torture of Roman citizens, and naval incompetence.
Key Themes and Charges
The speeches detail numerous specific allegations, including: the embezzlement of public funds; the theft of statues and artworks from temples and private homes (including from the Temple of Apollo at Delos, the Temple of Juno at Samos, and the Temple of Ceres at Henna); the illegal flogging and crucifixion of Roman citizens (most notably Publius Gavius, who was crucified despite asserting his Roman citizenship); the acceptance of bribes to release captured pirates; the negligent command of the Sicilian fleet, resulting in its destruction; and the systematic corruption of the legal system in Sicily.
Historical and Literary Significance
The In Verrem speeches are celebrated for their rhetorical power, meticulous marshaling of evidence, and vivid depiction of provincial misgovernment. They also provide invaluable insight into the Roman legal system, the administration of provinces, and the social and political dynamics of the late Republic.
The trial was a decisive victory for Cicero. Verres' conviction forced him into exile, and Cicero's successful prosecution, despite the opposition of the powerful Hortensius and the Metelli family, established his reputation as Rome's foremost orator. The speeches were published and circulated widely in antiquity, serving as models of forensic rhetoric for later generations.
Outcome
Verres went into exile in Massilia, where he lived until 43 BC, when he was reportedly proscribed and killed by Mark Antony (possibly over a disputed artwork). Cicero's published speeches, particularly the Actio Secunda, remain one of the most important sources for the history of the late Roman Republic.
