Definition
Helping behavior, also referred to as prosoci al behavior or altruistic behavior, denotes voluntary actions undertaken by an individual that are intended to benefit another person, group, or organism without expectation of external reward or personal gain. In the social sciences, helping behavior is distinguished from obligatory or coerced actions, and from behaviors performed primarily for self‑interest.
Historical Development
The systematic study of helping behavior emerged in the mid‑20th century within social psychology and sociology. Early experimental work, such as the seminal “bystander effect” studies conducted by Darley and Latané (1968), highlighted situational factors influencing the likelihood of assistance. Parallel developments in evolutionary biology introduced concepts of kin selection and reciprocal altruism (Hamilton, 1964; Trivers, 1971) to explain the adaptive value of helping.
Theoretical Frameworks
| Theory | Core Premise | Key Contributors |
|---|---|---|
| Social Exchange Theory | Individuals weigh costs and benefits; helping occurs when perceived benefits (e.g., reciprocity, social approval) outweigh costs. | Homans (1958), Blau (1964) |
| Empathy‑Altruism Hypothesis | Felt empathy for a target elicits an altruistic motivation to improve the target’s welfare. | Batson (1971) |
| Normative Social Influence | Social norms (e.g., the norm of reciprocity, the norm of social responsibility) generate expectations that promote helping. | Cialdini et al. (1976) |
| Evolutionary Models | Genetic relatedness and reciprocal exchanges increase the fitness benefits of helping. | Hamilton (1964); Trivers (1971) |
| Self‑Determination Theory | Intrinsic motivation, when aligned with personal values, fosters voluntary helping. | Deci & Ryan (2000) |
Determinants and Moderators
- Situational Factors
- Presence of others (diffusion of responsibility)
- Perceived cost of helping (time, effort, risk)
- Clarity of the need or emergency
- Individual Differences
- Personality traits (e.g., agreeableness, empathy)
- Mood states (positive mood can increase helping)
- Cultural background (collectivist vs. individualist orientations)
- Target Characteristics
- Similarity or in‑group membership with the helper
- Perceived responsibility or deservingness
- Social Norms and Context
- Institutional expectations (e.g., professional duty)
- Presence of explicit requests for assistance
Measurement Approaches
- Laboratory Paradigms – Tasks such as the “dictator game,” “public goods game,” and staged emergency scenarios assess willingness to help under controlled conditions.
- Field Observations – Naturalistic studies record actual helping incidents (e.g., assistance to strangers in public spaces).
- Self‑Report Instruments – Scales like the Prosocial Tendencies Measure (PTM) and the Altruistic Personality Scale capture dispositional helping propensity.
- Physiological Indicators – Measures of autonomic arousal (e.g., skin conductance) have been linked to empathic concern preceding helping actions.
Applications
- Organizational Contexts – Understanding helping behavior informs teamwork, leadership development, and corporate social responsibility programs.
- Health and Clinical Settings – Prosocial interventions are employed to improve patient outcomes and caregiver support.
- Education – Programs fostering empathy and cooperative learning aim to increase helping among students.
- Public Policy – Campaigns designed to encourage civic participation and volunteerism rely on insights from helping‑behavior research.
Related Concepts
- Altruism – Helping motivated solely by concern for others, often contrasted with egoistic motives.
- Prosocial Behavior – A broader category that includes helping, sharing, donating, and cooperating.
- Bystander Effect – The reduced likelihood of helping when others are present.
- Reciprocity Norm – Expectation that beneficial actions will be returned in kind.
See Also
- Empathy
- Social Influence
- Evolutionary Psychology
- Cooperation (biology)
References (selected)
- Batson, C. D. (1971). Altruism in Humans. New York: Oxford University Press.
- Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8(4), 377–383.
- Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 7, 1–16.
- Trivers, R. L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 46(1), 35–57.
- Cialdini, R. B., et al. (1976). Empirical studies of the norm of reciprocity in small groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 35, 393–399.
- Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self‑determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227–268.