Ghostdancing refers to the act of performing the Ghost Dance, a religious revitalization movement that emerged among various Native American peoples in the Western United States during the late 19th century. While the formal historical term is "Ghost Dance" (as a noun phrase), "ghostdancing" functions as the verb or gerund describing participation in this spiritual practice.
The Ghost Dance Movement
The Ghost Dance movement was primarily a spiritual and cultural response to the trauma, displacement, and oppression experienced by Native Americans due to westward expansion, broken treaties, and the systematic destruction of their traditional ways of life by the United States government.
Origins and Beliefs
The most widely known iteration of the Ghost Dance was propagated by the Paiute prophet Wovoka (also known as Jack Wilson) in Nevada in 1889. Wovoka claimed to have had a vision during a solar eclipse, where he visited the spirit world and received instructions from God. His teachings included:
- Peace and Harmony: Adherents were urged to live peacefully, abstain from alcohol, and practice honesty.
- Spiritual Renewal: Wovoka taught that performing the Ghost Dance would hasten a spiritual renewal, leading to the return of the ancestors, the disappearance of white settlers, the restoration of traditional lands, and the resurrection of the buffalo and other game animals.
- Non-Violence: Crucially, Wovoka's original message emphasized peaceful resistance and spiritual revival rather than armed conflict.
Rituals and Spread
The ritual itself involved communal dancing, singing, and prayer, often lasting for several days. Participants would sometimes wear special garments, known as "Ghost Dance shirts," which some believed would protect them from bullets. The dances often induced trances and visions, which were interpreted as communications from the spirit world.
The Ghost Dance rapidly spread across numerous tribes, particularly among those facing severe hardship, including the Lakota, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Shoshone, and others. Each tribe often adapted the teachings to their own cultural and spiritual traditions.
U.S. Government Reaction and Wounded Knee
The spread of the Ghost Dance alarmed U.S. government officials and settlers, who largely misunderstood its peaceful intentions. They feared it was a prelude to a Native American uprising, viewing the intense spiritual gatherings as war preparations. This fear was exacerbated by the perceived defiance of Native Americans against assimilation policies.
The escalating tensions culminated tragically in the Wounded Knee Massacre on December 29, 1890. U.S. Army troops surrounded a band of Lakota (mostly Miniconjou) led by Chief Spotted Elk (Big Foot) near Wounded Knee Creek in South Dakota, intending to disarm them. A single shot (the origin of which is debated) led to a chaotic massacre, resulting in the deaths of an estimated 250-300 Lakota men, women, and children, and 25 U.S. soldiers. Many of the Lakota present were Ghost Dancers. The Wounded Knee Massacre effectively suppressed the Ghost Dance movement, particularly among the Lakota, and marked the tragic end of major armed conflicts between the U.S. government and Native American tribes.
Legacy and Significance
Despite its violent suppression, the Ghost Dance remains a profound symbol of Native American resilience, spiritual agency, and resistance in the face of overwhelming cultural and physical destruction. It represents a desperate yet hopeful attempt to preserve cultural identity and envision a future free from colonial oppression. The movement continues to be studied by historians and anthropologists as a significant example of a revitalization movement and a crucial, albeit tragic, chapter in American history.
In Popular Culture
The Ghost Dance and the events surrounding it, particularly the Wounded Knee Massacre, have been referenced in various forms of popular culture, including literature, music, and art, reflecting its enduring historical weight and symbolic power.