The General Scholium is a concluding section appended by Isaac Newton to the second edition (1713) of his seminal work, Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). It was significantly expanded in the third edition of 1726.
Overview The General Scholium serves as a philosophical and methodological commentary within Newton's monumental scientific treatise. While the Principia itself primarily focuses on mathematical descriptions of physical phenomena, the General Scholium addresses broader questions concerning the nature of scientific inquiry, the limits of human knowledge, and the relationship between the mechanical universe and its creator. It famously contains Newton's declaration "Hypotheses non fingo" ("I frame no hypotheses"), asserting his commitment to deriving principles from phenomena rather than inventing speculative explanations for observed effects, particularly regarding the cause of gravity. The scholium also presents a powerful argument for the existence of an intelligent God as the ultimate designer and sustainer of the universe, based on the intricate order and design observable in nature.
Etymology/Origin The term "scholium" (from Latin scholium, derived from Greek skholion) historically refers to a marginal note, commentary, or remark added to an ancient text, particularly in mathematics or philosophy. "General" indicates that this particular commentary applies broadly to the preceding work's philosophical implications rather than a specific proposition. Its origin is definitively linked to Isaac Newton, first appearing in the 1713 second edition of his Principia Mathematica, revised and expanded in the 1726 third edition. Newton introduced it partly to respond to criticisms and clarify his philosophical stance regarding the forces he described.
Characteristics
- Methodological Statement: The most famous aspect is the "Hypotheses non fingo" declaration. Newton articulated a strict empiricist approach, arguing that in natural philosophy, one should deduce causes from observed effects and resist speculating on ultimate, unobservable causes without empirical evidence. This became a foundational principle for empirical science.
- Theological Argument: Newton used the observed order, stability, and intricate design of the cosmos, as revealed by his own laws, as evidence for an intelligent and powerful Creator. He argued that such a complex system could not have arisen from mere mechanical laws without divine guidance. This contributed significantly to natural theology.
- Addressing Criticisms: The scholium was partly a response to critics, notably Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who challenged Newton's concept of gravity as "action at a distance" without a clear mechanical explanation, viewing it as a mystical or occult force. Newton acknowledged the mystery of gravity's ultimate cause but insisted on its demonstrable existence and calculable effects.
- Concept of Space and Time: While not the primary focus, the General Scholium implicitly reinforces Newton's concepts of absolute space and time as the divine sensorium (God's faculty for perceiving the universe), positioning God as immanent throughout the cosmos.
- Influence: The General Scholium profoundly influenced the subsequent development of science and philosophy, shaping views on the scientific method, the relationship between science and religion, and the limits of scientific explanation for centuries.
Related Topics
- Isaac Newton
- Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica
- Empiricism
- Scientific Method
- Natural Theology
- Argument from design
- Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
- Leibniz-Clarke correspondence
- Philosophy of Science
- History of Science