Dongyi (Chinese: 東夷; pinyin: Dōngyí; literally "Eastern Barbarians" or "Eastern Yi") was a collective term used in ancient Chinese records to refer to various peoples living to the east of the Central Plains (the Yellow River basin). The definition of Dongyi shifted over time: in early periods it referred to indigenous groups in what is now eastern China (primarily Shandong, Jiangsu, and Anhui), while in later dynastic histories it was extended to include peoples of the Korean peninsula, the Japanese archipelago, and parts of Manchuria.
Etymology and Character
The Chinese character 夷 (yí) is composed of two components: 大 ("big") and 弓 ("bow"), which the Shuowen Jiezi (121 CE) glossed as "people of the east, big bow" — implying an association with archery. Earlier oracle bone and bronze script forms depict a person with a bent back or a person bound by a rope, suggesting connotations of a subjugated or foreign people.
Linguistically, the Old Chinese reconstruction of yí is *ləj (Baxter–Sagart 2014). Some scholars (e.g., Axel Schuessler) have proposed an Austroasiatic etymology, comparing it to Khmer dnle ("sea"), suggesting the term may originally have referred to "people living by the sea."
Historical Usage
Shang and Zhou Periods
- Oracle bone inscriptions from the late Shang dynasty (c. 1250–1046 BCE) record military campaigns against the Yifang (夷方), a group occupying southern Shandong and the Jianghuai region.
- During the Western Zhou, the term Dongyi and Huaiyi (淮夷, "Huai River Yi") appear in bronze inscriptions. The Duke of Zhou led a famous campaign against them.
- The Zuo Zhuan records that the Shang dynasty collapsed while King Di Xin was attacking the Dongyi, allowing King Wu of Zhou to strike.
Spring and Autumn Period
- Various states considered "Yi" existed in the east, including Xu (徐), Lai (萊), Ju (莒), Tan (譚), and Jiang (江). These states were gradually conquered or absorbed by the major powers of Qi, Chu, and Wu.
- Confucius is recorded in the Analects as having "desired to live among the Nine Yi" (九夷), indicating that the Yi were not always viewed negatively.
Warring States and Later
- By the Warring States period, the Classic of Rites codified the Four Barbarians (四夷) schema: Dongyi (east), Nanman (south), Xirong (west), and Beidi (north). The Dongyi were stereotyped as having "unbound hair and tattooed bodies" and eating uncooked food.
- As Chinese political and cultural influence expanded eastward, the term was applied to ever more distant peoples.
Post-Qin Dynastic Histories
- The Book of the Later Han (5th century CE) includes a "Dongyi" chapter covering Buyeo, Goguryeo, Okjeo, Dongye, Samhan (all in Korea/Manchuria), and Wa (Japan).
- The Records of the Three Kingdoms, Book of Jin, Book of Sui, Book of Tang, and New Book of Tang all maintain "Dongyi" sections describing Korean, Manchurian, and Japanese polities.
- During the Song dynasty, official histories replaced "Dongyi" with terms like Waiguo (外國, "foreign countries").
Archaeological Correlation
Many Chinese archaeologists associate the Dongyi with the Yueshi culture (c. 1900–1500 BCE) in Shandong, though some scholars (e.g., Fang Hui) caution that prehistoric population movements make such identifications problematic.
Key Ancient States Referred to as Dongyi
| State | Period | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Dapeng (大彭) | ?–1060 BCE | Conquered by Shang |
| Tan (譚國) | 1046–684 BCE | Annexed by Qi |
| Lai (萊國) | ?–567 BCE | Annexed by Qi |
| Xu (徐國) | ?–512 BCE | Major Huaiyi state; conquered by Wu |
| Ju (莒國) | 1046–431 BCE | Annexed by Chu |
| Zou (鄒國) | 1046–350 BCE | Small state in Shandong |
Scholarly Interpretations
- Edwin G. Pulleyblank proposed that the Yi were Austroasiatic speakers.
- Laurent Sagart suggested the Yi languages were ancestral to Austronesian, though this macrofamily hypothesis is not widely accepted.
- Modern scholarship generally treats "Dongyi" as a fluid, catch-all exonym rather than a label for a single ethnic or linguistic group.
