The "Century of Humiliation" (simplified Chinese: 百年国耻; traditional Chinese: 百年國恥; pinyin: Bǎinián Guóchǐ) is a term used in Chinese historiography and nationalism to describe the period of intervention and imperialism by Western powers and Japan in China between 1839 and 1949. The era is characterized by a perceived decline in China's global standing, the loss of territorial sovereignty, and the imposition of what are termed "Unequal Treaties."
Historical Timeline and Major Events
The beginning of the period is traditionally dated to 1839, the start of the First Opium War between the Qing Dynasty and the British Empire. The subsequent Treaty of Nanking (1842) resulted in the cession of Hong Kong and the opening of treaty ports.
Key events frequently cited within this period include:
- The Second Opium War (1856–1860): Resulted in the burning of the Old Summer Palace and further concessions to European powers.
- The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895): Ended in the Treaty of Shimonoseki, leading to the loss of influence over Korea and the cession of Taiwan to the Empire of Japan.
- The Boxer Rebellion and the Eight-Nation Alliance (1899–1901): Concluded with the Boxer Protocol, which imposed massive reparations on the Qing government and allowed foreign troops to be stationed in Beijing.
- The Twenty-One Demands (1915): A set of demands by the Empire of Japan that sought to greatly extend Japanese control over Chinese economy and government.
- The Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945): Part of World War II, involving large-scale occupation of Chinese territory and significant civilian and military casualties.
Origin and Usage of the Term
The specific phrase "national humiliation" began to gain prominence in Chinese political discourse in the early 20th century. Its usage increased following the 1915 Twenty-One Demands, leading the Republic of China government to designate a "National Humiliation Day."
The narrative of the Century of Humiliation has been utilized by various Chinese political entities, including the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The conclusion of the period is generally associated with the end of World War II in 1945 or, more commonly in mainland Chinese historiography, the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. At the founding ceremony in 1949, Mao Zedong declared, "The Chinese people have stood up," a statement often interpreted as the formal end of the era.
Historiographical Significance
In modern political science and international relations, the Century of Humiliation is frequently analyzed as a foundational element of Chinese national identity and foreign policy. Scholars note that the memory of this period contributes to China's emphasis on sovereignty, territorial integrity, and its sensitivity to perceived foreign interference. The narrative serves as a central theme in the "Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation," a policy goal aimed at restoring China's historical status as a global power.