Bukit Kerang is an archaeological term used primarily in Indonesia and Malaysia to describe shell middens, also known as kitchen middens (from the Danish kjökkenmöddinger). The term is derived from the Indonesian/Malay words bukit, meaning "hill" or "mound," and kerang, meaning "shell" or "mollusk." These sites are prehistoric refuse heaps consisting predominantly of discarded mollusk shells, interspersed with animal bones, charcoal, and stone artifacts.
Archaeological Context
Bukit Kerang sites are primarily associated with the Mesolithic period (Middle Stone Age) and the Hoabinhian culture, which existed roughly between 10,000 and 5,000 years ago. These mounds provide evidence of the transition of human societies toward more sedentary or semi-sedentary lifestyles along coastal or riverine environments.
In Southeast Asia, these middens are frequently found along the northeastern coast of Sumatra (particularly in the provinces of Aceh and North Sumatra) and parts of the Malay Peninsula. The existence of these mounds inland today often serves as an indicator of historical sea-level changes, as many were originally situated on ancient shorelines.
Composition and Findings
The primary component of a Bukit Kerang is the remains of aquatic shells, most commonly from the species Meretrix meretrix (hard-shell clams) and Anadara granosa (blood cockles). Excavations of these mounds have yielded significant archaeological materials, including:
- Stone Tools: Specifically "Sumatraliths" (oval-shaped pebble tools flaked on one side), mortars, and pestles used for grinding food or pigments.
- Faunal Remains: Bones of land mammals such as deer, pigs, and monkeys, indicating a diet supplemented by hunting.
- Human Remains: Occasionally, primary or secondary burials are found within the shell layers, providing insights into the physical characteristics and funerary practices of prehistoric populations.
- Hematite: Traces of red ochre are often found on tools or skeletal remains, suggesting ritualistic or symbolic use.
Significance
Bukit Kerang sites are crucial for understanding the palaeoenvironment, dietary habits, and migration patterns of early human inhabitants in the Indonesian archipelago. They serve as a record of the exploitation of marine and mangrove resources. However, many of these sites have been depleted or destroyed over the decades due to the extraction of shells for lime production or construction materials, leading to the loss of significant archaeological data.