The year 1842 represented a pivotal turning point in Chinese history, as it saw the conclusion of the First Opium War (1839–1842) between the Qing dynasty and Great Britain, and the signing of the Treaty of Nanking (Nanjing), which initiated a series of agreements Chinese nationalists later termed the "unequal treaties."
Historical Context
In 1842, China was ruled by the Daoguang Emperor (22nd year of his reign) of the Qing dynasty (1644–1911). During the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Britain had faced a growing trade deficit with China, which it sought to offset through the sale of opium grown in India. When the Qing government attempted to suppress the opium trade—most notably through the actions of Imperial Commissioner Lin Zexu, who confiscated and destroyed large quantities of opium in 1839—Britain declared war, initiating the First Opium War in 1839.
Key Events of 1842
Military Campaigns
During early 1842, the First Opium War continued with significant engagements:
- In February 1842, the British vessel Nemesis saw action at Taisam in a successful skirmish associated with repelling a much larger Chinese attack on Ningbo.
- In the spring of 1842, the Daoguang Emperor ordered his cousin Yijing to retake the city of Ningpo (Ningbo). In the ensuing Battle of Ningbo on 10 March, the British garrison repelled the assault with rifle fire and naval artillery. At Ningbo, the British lured the Qing army into the city streets before opening fire, resulting in heavy Chinese casualties.
- On 15 March, the British pursued the retreating Chinese army and captured the nearby city of Cixi.
The Treaty of Nanking
On 29 August 1842, the First Opium War officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking (also rendered Nanjing). Negotiations took place on board the British warship HMS Cornwallis, anchored in the Yangtze River at Nanjing. The treaty was signed by British representative Sir Henry Pottinger and Qing representatives Keying, Yilibu, and Niu Jian.
The treaty consisted of thirteen articles with several major provisions:
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Cession of Hong Kong: The Qing government agreed to cede Hong Kong Island to Britain in perpetuity, providing British traders with a harbor for refitting ships and storing goods.
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Indemnity and reparations: China was required to pay Britain a total of 27 million silver dollars—6 million for confiscated opium, 6 million for the Ransom of Canton (1841), 3 million in compensation for debts owed to British merchants, and 12 million in war reparations—payable in installments over three years at an annual interest rate of 5 percent.
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Opening of treaty ports: The treaty abolished the Canton System (in force since 1760) and opened five treaty ports to foreign trade and residence: Canton (Guangzhou), Xiamen (Amoy), Fuzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai. Britain gained the right to station consuls in these ports.
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Fixed tariffs: Trade in the treaty ports was to be subject to fixed tariffs agreed upon between the British and Qing governments.
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Release of prisoners: The Qing agreed to release all British prisoners of war and grant amnesty to Chinese subjects who had cooperated with the British during the war.
Ratification
The treaty was ratified by the Daoguang Emperor on 27 October 1842 and by Queen Victoria on 28 December 1842. The formal exchange of ratifications took place in Hong Kong on 26 June 1843.
Consequences
The Treaty of Nanking and the follow-up Treaty of the Bogue (1843, which granted extraterritoriality and most-favored-nation status) had deep and lasting effects. They effectively ended the centuries-old Sinocentric tributary system of interstate relations, replaced the Canton System with a new framework for foreign trade, and marked the beginning of what later Chinese nationalists termed the "century of humiliation." Historian Joanna Waley-Cohen notes that, at the time of signing, the Qing did not necessarily regard the treaty as of major significance, partly because similar arrangements had been made with the Central Asian state of Kokand.
Notable Births
- Wu Tingfang (伍廷芳, also known as Ng Choy or Ng Achoy; 30 July 1842 – 23 June 1922) was a Straits Settlements-born Chinese diplomat and politician who served as Minister of Foreign Affairs and briefly as Acting Premier during the early years of the Republic of China.
The year 1842 thus stands as a watershed marking the transition of Qing China from a dominant regional power operating under its traditional tributary system to a country increasingly subject to the pressures of Western imperial expansion.
